Initial commit of some initial documentation

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2024-01-08 16:13:21 -07:00
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## Core latex/pdflatex auxiliary files:
*.aux
*.lof
*.log
*.lot
*.fls
*.out
*.toc
*.fmt
*.fot
*.cb
*.cb2
.*.lb
## Intermediate documents:
*.dvi
*.xdv
*-converted-to.*
# these rules might exclude image files for figures etc.
# *.ps
# *.eps
# *.pdf
## Bibliography auxiliary files (bibtex/biblatex/biber):
*.bbl
*.bcf
*.blg
*-blx.aux
*-blx.bib
*.run.xml
## Build tool auxiliary files:
*.fdb_latexmk
*.synctex
*.synctex(busy)
*.synctex.gz
*.synctex.gz(busy)
*.pdfsync
## Build tool directories for auxiliary files
# latexrun
latex.out/
## Auxiliary and intermediate files from other packages:
# algorithms
*.alg
*.loa
# achemso
acs-*.bib
# amsthm
*.thm
# beamer
*.nav
*.pre
*.snm
*.vrb
# changes
*.soc
# comment
*.cut
# cprotect
*.cpt
# elsarticle (documentclass of Elsevier journals)
*.spl
# endnotes
*.ent
# fixme
*.lox
# feynmf/feynmp
*.mf
*.mp
*.t[1-9]
*.t[1-9][0-9]
*.tfm
#(r)(e)ledmac/(r)(e)ledpar
*.end
*.?end
*.[1-9]
*.[1-9][0-9]
*.[1-9][0-9][0-9]
*.[1-9]R
*.[1-9][0-9]R
*.[1-9][0-9][0-9]R
*.eledsec[1-9]
*.eledsec[1-9]R
*.eledsec[1-9][0-9]
*.eledsec[1-9][0-9]R
*.eledsec[1-9][0-9][0-9]
*.eledsec[1-9][0-9][0-9]R
# glossaries
*.acn
*.acr
*.glg
*.glo
*.gls
*.glsdefs
*.lzo
*.lzs
*.slg
*.slo
*.sls
# uncomment this for glossaries-extra (will ignore makeindex's style files!)
# *.ist
# gnuplot
*.gnuplot
*.table
# gnuplottex
*-gnuplottex-*
# gregoriotex
*.gaux
*.glog
*.gtex
# htlatex
*.4ct
*.4tc
*.idv
*.lg
*.trc
*.xref
# hyperref
*.brf
# knitr
*-concordance.tex
# TODO Uncomment the next line if you use knitr and want to ignore its generated tikz files
# *.tikz
*-tikzDictionary
# listings
*.lol
# luatexja-ruby
*.ltjruby
# makeidx
*.idx
*.ilg
*.ind
# minitoc
*.maf
*.mlf
*.mlt
*.mtc[0-9]*
*.slf[0-9]*
*.slt[0-9]*
*.stc[0-9]*
# minted
_minted*
*.pyg
# morewrites
*.mw
# newpax
*.newpax
# nomencl
*.nlg
*.nlo
*.nls
# pax
*.pax
# pdfpcnotes
*.pdfpc
# sagetex
*.sagetex.sage
*.sagetex.py
*.sagetex.scmd
# scrwfile
*.wrt
# svg
svg-inkscape/
# sympy
*.sout
*.sympy
sympy-plots-for-*.tex/
# pdfcomment
*.upa
*.upb
# pythontex
*.pytxcode
pythontex-files-*/
# tcolorbox
*.listing
# thmtools
*.loe
# TikZ & PGF
*.dpth
*.md5
*.auxlock
# titletoc
*.ptc
# todonotes
*.tdo
# vhistory
*.hst
*.ver
# easy-todo
*.lod
# xcolor
*.xcp
# xmpincl
*.xmpi
# xindy
*.xdy
# xypic precompiled matrices and outlines
*.xyc
*.xyd
# endfloat
*.ttt
*.fff
# Latexian
TSWLatexianTemp*
## Editors:
# WinEdt
*.bak
*.sav
# Texpad
.texpadtmp
# LyX
*.lyx~
# Kile
*.backup
# gummi
.*.swp
# KBibTeX
*~[0-9]*
# TeXnicCenter
*.tps
# auto folder when using emacs and auctex
./auto/*
*.el
# expex forward references with \gathertags
*-tags.tex
# standalone packages
*.sta
# Makeindex log files
*.lpz
# xwatermark package
*.xwm
# REVTeX puts footnotes in the bibliography by default, unless the nofootinbib
# option is specified. Footnotes are the stored in a file with suffix Notes.bib.
# Uncomment the next line to have this generated file ignored.
#*Notes.bib
# Draw.io backup files
*.bkp
*.dtmp
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\documentclass[12pt,letterpaper]{report}
\usepackage{init}
\usepackage{import}
\usepackage{dsfont}
\newcommand{\cond}[1]{\text{cond}\left(#1\right)}
\newcommand{\linear}[1]{\mathcal{L}\left(#1\right)}
\newcommand{\Id}{\mathds{I}}
\newcommand{\per}[1]{\text{per}\left(#1\right)}
\setcounter{chapter}{-1}
\author{Alexander J. Clarke}
\title{Linear Algebra Theorems and Definitions}
\begin{document}
\maketitle
\clearpage
\begin{center}
\thispagestyle{empty}
\vspace*{\fill}
All theorems, corollaries, lemmas, remarks, and asides are direct quotes from Linear Algebra, 4th Edition, by Stephen H. Friedberg, Arnold J. Insel, and Lawrence E. Spence
\vspace*{\fill}
\end{center}
\tableofcontents
\import{./}{chapter-0.tex}
\import{chapter-1/}{chapter-1.tex}
\import{chapter-2/}{chapter-2.tex}
\import{chapter-3/}{chapter-3.tex}
\import{chapter-4/}{chapter-4.tex}
\import{chapter-5/}{chapter-5.tex}
\import{chapter-6/}{chapter-6.tex}
\import{chapter-7/}{chapter-7.tex}
\end{document}
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\chapter{List of Symbols}
\begin{align*}
& A_{ij} & \text{the $ij$-th entry of the matrix $A$} \\
& A^{-1} & \text{the inverse of the matrix $A$} \\
& A^\dag & \text{the pseudoinverse of the matrix $A$} \\
& A^* & \text{the adjoint of the matrix $A$} \\
& \tilde{A}_{ij} & \text{the matrix $A$ with row $i$ and column $j$ deleted} \\
& A^t & \text{the transpose of the matrix $A$} \\
& (A|B) & \text{the matrix $A$ augmented by the matrix $B$} \\
& B_1 \bigoplus \dots \bigoplus B_k & \text{the direct sum of matrices $B_1$ through $B_k$} \\
& \mathcal{B}(V) & \text{the set of bilinear forms on $V$} \\
& \beta^* & \text{the dual basis of $\beta$} \\
& \beta_x & \text{the $T$-cyclic basis generated by $x$} \\
& \C & \text{the field of complex numbers} \\
& \C_i & \text{the $i$th Gerschgorin disk} \\
& \cond{A} & \text{the condition number of the matrix $A$} \\
& C^n(\R) & \text{set of functions $f$ on $\R$ with $f^{(n)}$ continuous} \\
& C^\infty & \text{set of functions with derivatives of every order} \\
& C(\R) & \text{the vector space of continuous functions on $\R$} \\
& C([0,1]) & \text{the vector space of continuous functions on $[0,1]$} \\
& C_x & \text{the $T$-cyclic subspaces generated by $x$} \\
& D & \text{the derivative operator on $C^\infty$} \\
& \ldet{A} & \text{the determinant of the matrix $A$} \\
& \delta_{ij} & \text{the Kronecker delta} \\
& \ldim{V} & \text{the dimension of $V$} \\
& e^A & \lim_{m \to \infty} \left(I + A + \frac{A^2}{2!} + \dots + \frac{A^m}{m!}\right) \\
& e_i & \text{the $i$th standard vector of $\F^n$} \\
\end{align*}
\begin{align*}
& E_\lambda & \text{the eigenspace of $T$ corresponding to $\lambda$} \\
& \F & \text{a field} \\
& f(A) & \text{the polynomial $f(x)$ evaluated at the matrix $A$} \\
& F^n & \text{the set of $n$-tuples with entries in a field $\F$} \\
& f(T) & \text{the polynomial $f(x)$ evaluated at the operator $T$} \\
& \mathcal{F}(S,\F) & \text{the set of functions from $S$ to a field $\F$} \\
& H & \text{space of continuous complex functions on $[0, 2\pi]$} \\
& I_n \text{ or } I & \text{the $n \times n$ identity matrix} \\
& \Id_V \text{ or } \Id & \text{the identity operator on $V$} \\
& K_\lambda & \text{generalized eigenspace of $T$ corresponding to $\lambda$} \\
& K_\phi & \{x\ |\ (\phi(T))^p(x) = 0 \text{, for some positive integer $p$}\} \\
& L_A & \text{left-multiplication transformation by matrix $A$} \\
& \lim_{m \to \infty}A_m & \text{the limit of a sequence of matrices} \\
& \linear{V} & \text{the space of linear transformations from $V$ to $V$} \\
& \linear{V, W} & \text{the space of linear transformations from $V$ to $W$} \\
& M_{m \times n}(\F) & \text{the set of $m \times n$ matrices with entries in $\F$} \\
& v(A) & \text{the column sum of the matrix $A$} \\
& v_j(A) & \text{the $j$th column sum of the matrix $A$} \\
& N(T) & \text{the null space of $T$} \\
& \nullity{T} & \text{the dimension of the null space of $T$} \\
& O & \text{the zero matrix} \\
& \per{M} & \text{the permanent of the $2 \times 2$ matrix $M$} \\
& P(\F) & \text{the space of polynomials with coefficients in $\F$} \\
& P_n(\F) & \text{the polynomials in $P(\F)$ of degree at most $n$} \\
& \phi_\beta & \text{the standard representation with respect to basis $\beta$} \\
& \R & \text{the field of real numbers} \\
& \rank{A} & \text{the rank of the matrix $A$} \\
& \rank{T} & \text{the rank of the linear transformation $T$} \\
& \rho(A) & \text{the row sum of the matrix $A$} \\
& \rho_i(A) & \text{the $i$th row sum of the matrix $A$} \\
& R(T) & \text{the range of the linear transformation $T$} \\
& S_1 + S_2 & \text{the sum of sets $S_1$ and $S_2$} \\
& \lspan{S} & \text{the span of the set $S$} \\
& S^\perp & \text{the orthogonal complement of the set $S$} \\
& [T]_\beta & \text{the matrix representation of $T$ in basis $\beta$} \\
& [T]_\beta^\gamma & \text{the matrix representation of $T$ in bases $\beta$ and $\gamma$} \\
& T^{-1} & \text{the inverse of the linear transformation $T$} \\
\end{align*}
\begin{align*}
& T^\dag & \text{the pseudoinverse of the linear transformation $T$} \\
& T^* & \text{the adjoint of the linear operator $T$} \\
& T_0 & \text{the zero transformation} \\
& T^t & \text{the transpose of the linear transformation $T$} \\
& T_\theta & \text{the rotation transformation by $\theta$} \\
& T_W & \text{the restriction of $T$ to a subspace $W$} \\
& \ltr{A} & \text{the trace of the matrix $A$} \\
& V^* & \text{the dual space of the vector space $V$} \\
& V/W & \text{the quotient space of $V$ modulo $W$} \\
& W_1 + \dots + W_k & \text{the sum of subspaces $W_1$ through $W_k$} \\
& \sum_{i=1}^k W_i & \text{the sum of subspaces $W_i$ through $W_k$} \\
& W_1 \bigoplus W_2 & \text{the direct sum of subspaces $W_1$ and $W_2$} \\
& W_1 \bigoplus \dots \bigoplus W_k & \text{the direct sum of subspaces $W_1$ through $W_k$} \\
& \norm{x} & \text{the norm of the vector $\vec{x}$} \\
& [x]_\beta & \text{the coordinate vector of $x$ relative to $\beta$} \\
& \langle x, y \rangle & \text{the inner product of $\vec{x}$ and $\vec{y}$} \\
& \Z_2 & \text{the field consisting of $0$ and $1$} \\
& \overline{\vec{z}} & \text{the complex conjugate of $\vec{z}$} \\
& \vec{0} & \text{the zero vector} \\
\end{align*}
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\section{Bases and Dimension}
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\chapter{Vector Spaces}
\subimport{./}{introduction.tex}
\subimport{./}{vector-spaces.tex}
\subimport{./}{subspaces.tex}
\subimport{./}{linear-combinations-and-systems-of-linear-equations.tex}
\subimport{./}{linear-dependence-and-linear-independence.tex}
\subimport{./}{bases-and-dimension.tex}
\subimport{./}{maximal-linearly-independent-subsets.tex}
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\section{Introduction}
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\section{Linear Combinations and Systems of Linear Equations}
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\section{Linear Dependence and Linear Independence}
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\section{Maximal Linearly Independent Subsets}
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\section{Subspaces}
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\section{Vector Spaces}
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\chapter{Linear Transformations and Matrices}
\subimport{./}{linear-transformations-null-spaces-and-ranges.tex}
\subimport{./}{the-matrix-representation-of-a-linear-transformation.tex}
\subimport{./}{composition-of-linear-transformations-and-matrix-multiplication.tex}
\subimport{./}{invertibility-and-isomorphisms.tex}
\subimport{./}{the-change-of-coordinate-matrix.tex}
\subimport{./}{dual-spaces.tex}
\subimport{./}{homogeneous-linear-differential-equations-with-constant-coefficients.tex}
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\section{Compositions of Linear Transformations and Matrix Multiplication}
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\section{Dual Spaces}
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\section{Homogeneous Linear Differential Equations with Constant Coefficients}
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\section{Invertibility and Isomorphisms}
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\section{Linear Transformations, Null Spaces, and Ranges}
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\section{The Change of Coordinate Matrix}
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\section{The Matrix Representation of a Linear Transformation}
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\chapter{Elementary Matrix Operations and Systems of Linear Equations}
\subimport{./}{elementary-matrix-operations-and-elementary-matrices.tex}
\subimport{./}{the-rank-of-a-matrix-and-matrix-inverses.tex}
\subimport{./}{systems-of-linear-equations-theoretical-aspects.tex}
\subimport{./}{systems-of-linear-equations-computational-aspects.tex}
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\section{Elementary Matrix Operations and Elementary Matrices}
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\section{Systems of Linear Equations -- Computational Aspects}
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\section{Systems of Linear Equations -- Theoretical Aspects}
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\section{The Rank of a Matrix and Matrix Inverses}
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\section{A Characterization of the Determinant}
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\chapter{Determinants}
\subimport{./}{determinants-of-order-2.tex}
\subimport{./}{determinants-of-order-n.tex}
\subimport{./}{properties-of-determinants.tex}
\subimport{./}{summary-important-facts-about-determinants.tex}
\subimport{./}{a-characterization-of-the-determinant.tex}
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\section{Determinants of Order 2}
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\section{Determinants of Order $n$}
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\section{Properties of Determinants}
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\section{Summary -- Important Facts about Determinants}
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\chapter{Diagonalization}
\subimport{./}{eigenvalues-and-eigenvectors.tex}
\subimport{./}{diagonalizability.tex}
\subimport{./}{matrix-limits-and-markov-chains.tex}
\subimport{./}{invariant-subspaces-and-the-cayley-hamilton-theorem.tex}
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\section{Diagonalizability}
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\section{Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors}
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\section{Invariant Subspaces and the Cayley-Hamilton Theorem}
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\section{Matrix Limits and Markov Chains}
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\section{Bilinear and Quadratic Forms}
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\chapter{Inner Product Spaces}
\subimport{./}{inner-products-and-norms.tex}
\subimport{./}{the-gram-schmidt-orthogonalization-process-and-orthogonal-complements.tex}
\subimport{./}{the-adjoint-of-a-linear-operator.tex}
\subimport{./}{normal-and-self-adjoint-operators.tex}
\subimport{./}{unitary-and-orthogonal-operators-and-their-matrices.tex}
\subimport{./}{orthogonal-projections-and-the-spectral-theorem.tex}
\subimport{./}{the-singular-value-decomposition-and-the-pseudoinverse.tex}
\subimport{./}{bilinear-and-quadratic-forms.tex}
\subimport{./}{einsteins-special-theory-of-relativity.tex}
\subimport{./}{conditioning-and-the-rayleigh-quotient.tex}
\subimport{./}{the-geometry-of-orthogonal-operators.tex}
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\section{Conditioning and the Rayleigh Quotient}
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\section{Einstein's Special Theory of Relativity}
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\section{Inner Products and Norms}
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\section{Normal and Self-Adjoing Operators}
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\section{Orthogonal Projections and the Spectral Theorem}
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\section{The Adjoint of a Linear Operator}
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\section{The Geometry of Orthogonal Operators}
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\section{The Gram-Schmidt Orthogonalization Process and Orthogonal Complements}
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\section{The Singular Value Decomposition and the Pseudoinverse}
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\section{Unitary and Orthogonal Operators and Their Matrices}
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\chapter{Canonical Forms}
\subimport{./}{the-jordan-canonical-form-i.tex}
\subimport{./}{the-jordan-canonical-form-ii.tex}
\subimport{./}{the-minimal-polynomial.tex}
\subimport{./}{the-rational-canonical-form.tex}
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\section{The Jordan Canonical Form I}
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\section{The Jordan Canonical Form II}
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\section{The Minimal Polynomial}
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\section{The rational Canonical Form}
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\ProvidesPackage{init}
\usepackage{import}
\usepackage[utf8]{inputenc}
\usepackage{pgfplots}
\usepackage[english]{babel}
\usepackage{amsthm}
\usepackage{thmtools}
\usepackage{hyperref}
\usepackage{cancel}
\usepackage{mathtools}
\usepackage{amsmath}
\usepackage{amsfonts}
\usepackage{amssymb}
\usepackage{graphicx}
\usepackage{relsize}
\usepackage{listings}
\graphicspath{ {./images/} }
\usepackage{array}
\usepackage{tikz}
\usetikzlibrary{arrows}
\usepackage[left=2cm, right=2.5cm, top=2.5cm, bottom=2.5cm]{geometry}
\usepackage{enumitem}
\usepackage{mathrsfs}
% Math Functions
\newcommand{\limx}[2]{\displaystyle\lim\limits_{#1 \to #2}}
\newcommand{\st}{\ \text{s.t.}\ }
\newcommand{\abs}[1]{\left\lvert #1 \right\rvert}
\newcommand{\dotp}{\dot{\mathcal{P}}}
\newcommand{\dotq}{\dot{\mathcal{Q}}}
\newcommand{\Int}[1]{\text{int}\left(#1\right)}
\newcommand{\cl}[1]{\text{cl}\left(#1\right)}
\newcommand{\bd}[1]{\text{bd}\left(#1\right)}
\newcommand{\lr}[1]{\left(#1\right)}
\newcommand{\lspan}[1]{\text{span}\left(#1\right)}
\newcommand{\ldim}[1]{\text{dim}\left(#1\right)}
\newcommand{\nullity}[1]{\text{nullity}\left(#1\right)}
\newcommand{\rank}[1]{\text{rank}\left(#1\right)}
\newcommand{\ldet}[1]{\text{det}\left(#1\right)}
\newcommand{\ltr}[1]{\text{tr}\left(#1\right)}
\newcommand{\norm}[1]{\left\lVert#1\right\rVert}
\DeclareMathOperator{\sign}{sgn}
\renewcommand{\qedsymbol}{$\blacksquare$}
% Special Sets
\newcommand{\R}{\mathbb{R}}
\newcommand{\N}{\mathbb{N}}
\newcommand{\Q}{\mathbb{Q}}
\newcommand{\C}{\mathbb{C}}
\newcommand{\Z}{\mathbb{Z}}
\newcommand{\F}{\mathbb{F}}
% Theorem Styles
\declaretheorem[numberwithin=subsection, style=definition]{theorem, definition, notation, lemma, corollary, remark, example}
% Formatting
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